Geographic variation in insect coloration is among the most intriguing types of fast phenotypic evolution and opportunities to review mechanisms of phenotypic change and diversification in closely related lineages. >90,000 and >25,000 one\nucleotide polymorphisms produced from transcriptome (RNAseq) and dual digest limitation site linked DNA sequencing (ddRAD), respectively, in representative samples from color and spatial design extremes in aswell as phenotypic and geographic intermediates. Both ddRAD and RNAseq data illustrate significant genome\wide differentiation from the reddish colored\banded (eastern) color type from both dark\banded (traditional western) and intermediate (central) phenotypes and negligible differentiation among the last mentioned populations, without apparent admixture among bees from both main lineages. Outcomes indicate stronger history differentiation among lineages than anticipated hence, highlighting potential problems for uncovering loci root color TAK-715 polymorphism from inhabitants genetic data by itself. These findings could have significance for resolving taxonomic dilemma within this types and in upcoming efforts to research color\design advancement in and various other polymorphic bumble bee types. Genome Consortium 2012), both which may be very important to the distribution of adaptive variant. For example, divergent phenotypes may stem from deposition of unique genetic variants among populations due to reproductive barriers, drift, and selective pressures that maintain differentiation in distinct environments (Nosil et?al. 2005). Conversely, the spread of beneficial alleles through hybridization and selection may contribute adaptive phenotypic development across species (Seehausen 2004; Gompert et?al. 2006; Mallet 2007; Hines et?al. 2011). Understanding the relative contributions of divergence and admixture in populations that are in the process of diversifying may help reveal TAK-715 the evolutionary causes at play in the origins of phenotypic variance like coloration. Bumble bees generally exhibit remarkable color\pattern variance (Plowright and Owen 1980; Williams 2007) that provides opportunities for investigating the conversation of phenotypic polymorphism and diversification in closely related lineages. Convergence of sympatric species on comparable pigmentation patterns has produced more than 30 Mllerian mimicry complexes globally (Plowright and Owen 1980; Williams 2007). Intraspecific populations in different geographic regions may evolve different color patterns to match local mimicry complexes, while multiple species in the same region phenotypically converge (Williams 2007; Owen et?al. 2010; Hines and Williams 2012), and untangling the associations between genetic divergence and phenotype can thus be a challenge. Indeed, associations between phylogeny and color at deeper timescales are often poor (Cameron et?al. 2007; Hines and Williams 2012), suggesting quick development of pigmentation changes that might be attributed to the relatively small set TAK-715 of color\pattern elements (Rapti et?al. 2014) and associated genes. However, lineage associations with color are found at lower phylogenetic levels (Duennes et?al. 2012; Hines and Williams 2012; Lozier et?al. 2013), which may ultimately be most useful for illuminating the processes involved in pigmentation development. (Cresson is among the more dramatic cases of divergence in abdominal coloration in UNITED STATES bumble bees (Stephen 1957; Williams et?al. 2014) (Fig.?1). In america, two main color forms participate in two of the primary North American CAPZA1 local color design groupings (Plowright and Owen 1980; Williams 2007); populations in the easternmost elements of the types range in the southern Colorado Rocky Mountains, mainly in Colorado (CO) and southeastern Wyoming (WY), display bright red locks color on the next and third stomach tergites (crimson\banded), while those in the westernmost Pacific area have dark shaded hairs (dark\banded). Geographically intermediate populations possess much more adjustable pigmentation, generally with some extent of blended coloration between your even more extreme crimson\ and dark\banded forms (Lozier et?al. 2013; Williams et?al. 2014) (Fig.?1). Subspecific brands have been put on reveal geographic color\design distinctions (Stephen 1957): Cresson corresponds towards the crimson\banded form taking place mainly in easternmost populations (henceforth Handlirsch is certainly more prevalent and widespread, which range from the dark\banded types of the traditional western\most US (in america, with sampling sites and general approximation of locations where each color design is available (crimson: … TAK-715 The evolutionary position of lineages continues to be unclear (Lozier et?al. 2013; Williams et?al. 2014). Microsatellites present structuring in keeping with both subspecies TAK-715 and phenotype designations, distinguishing the eastern crimson\banded populations that present more technical patterns of hereditary and phenotypic deviation but generally cluster jointly (Lozier et?al. 2011, 2013). Nevertheless, weak differentiation fairly, mixed assignment of people to multiple hereditary groupings, and gradients in both allele regularity and pigmentation through intermediate populations all recommend the chance of ongoing gene stream between two main population groups (Lozier et?al. 2011, 2013). The relatively small numbers of markers analyzed may have limited the resolution of analyses, however, and the apparent connectivity could stem from poor drift in large regional bumble bee populations, combined with the high variability of microsatellites. Resolving associations among color forms will be a important for exposing the evolutionary changes that contribute to phenotype in this species. In this study, we clarify the associations among lineage and color\pattern differentiation across the major reddish\vs\black pigmentation groups of the contiguous USA, utilizing two complementary genomic methods. Given the diversity of next generation sequencing methods available for.